www.saseeduc.net

SOUTHERN AFRICAN SOCIETY FOR EDUCATION

29TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

Education Deliverables in Democratic States: A Focus on Southern African
Countries

CONFERENCE PAPERS

September 25-27, 2003

North West Province

An understanding of “concepts” in the context of environmental literacy for
sustainability

Dr CC Chacko, Department of Education, KwaMhlanga Teacher Centre,

P/Bag X4021, KwaMhlanga 1022, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa.

E-mail: chacko@ telkomsa.net

Abstract

There cannot be much doubt
that the concepts held by people have a strong influence upon their attitudes,
values, decision making, ways of solving problems, etc. In Curriculum 2005,
learners should be active participants in the learning process in order to
build a meaningful understanding of concepts, which they can apply in their
lives. An understanding of concepts is very important, especially to maintain
and improve the quality of the environment and quality of life.

However, there are different views about
concepts. The aim of this paper is to highlight the meaning of the term
“concept” in the context of environmental literacy for sustainability.
Different views about concepts are outlined. A model of concept and its
definition are provided. In most instances it is difficult to define a concept.
Ten central concepts and sub concepts related to environmental literacy for
sustainability are explained. The study of Life Sciences, for example, enables
learners to understand those concepts, which are essential to basic life
processes and the interrelationship and inter-dependence of components of the
living and the physical world.

Introduction

One of the advantages of
Outcomes Based Education (OBE) is that learners are engaged in environmental
problems in order to develop strategies towards solving them. This is essential
for conserving, managing, developing and utilising natural resources to ensure
the survival of local and global environments. Learners should be active
participants in the learning process in order to build a meaningful
understanding of concepts, which they can apply in their lives. Among the
Specific Outcomes (SO) for the Learning Area – Natural Sciences, SO2 for
example, states that learners “Demonstrate an understanding of concepts and
principles, and acquired knowledge in the Natural Sciences” (Department of
Education, 1997). It is through the ability to use, extend and apply knowledge
that a learner can be said to understand concepts and principles in the Natural
Sciences. Learners show work in which scientific knowledge, concepts and
principles are used to inform actions.
In developing their work, learners will develop their understanding of
concepts and principles in each of the four Themes (Matter & Materials,
Energy & Change, Life & Living, Earth & Beyond), separately or in
combination. In the Theme-Life and Living some of the key concepts are
ecosystems, effect of environment on life processes, population dynamics,
etc.  Learners will be able to identify
and select relevant scientific concepts, demonstrate an understanding of these
concepts when using and applying them in a variety of tasks such as problem
solving, investigating, and decision making in everyday contexts.

In the Further Education and Training Band, the Life Sciences build on the foundation laid by the Natural
Sciences Learning Area in the General Education and Training Band. The Life
Sciences, among others, involves the understanding of concepts and the analysis
of processes and their related biological and ecological systems. The study of
Life Sciences enables learners to understand those concepts, which are
essential to basic life processes and the interrelationship and
inter-dependence of components of the living and the physical world. In the
National Curriculum Statement for Biology (Life Sciences) Grades 10-12, in one
of Learning Outcomes (LO 2: Constructing Science Knowledge) the learner is able
to construct, interpret and apply scientific, technological and environmental
concepts to explain natural phenomena relevant to Life Sciences (Department of
Education, 2002). In the Life Sciences, study of the environment is one of the
four Knowledge Areas. Are learners able to identify and select relevant
scientific concepts, demonstrate an understanding of these concepts when using
and applying them in a variety of tasks such as problem solving, investigating,
and decision making in everyday contexts? Do teachers contribute to the
development of concepts in their students?

There cannot be much doubt that the concepts held by people have a strong influence upon their attitudes,
values, decision making, ways of solving problems, etc. According to Brody
(1990-91) the comprehension and acceptance of concepts that are intelligible
and rational can lead to a change in the meaning of experience for the learner.
It can be assumed that knowledge of concepts in matters affecting life is
extremely important. However, there are different views about concepts. The
question is what is the exact meaning of the term “concept”.  Therefore, aim of this paper is to highlight
the meaning of the term “concept”.

Definition of a concept

Do concepts have meanings?
According to dictionary definitions, a concept is a principle, an idea, a
thought, an opinion, or sometimes understanding (Cambridge International
Dictionary of English, 1995). According to Hill (1971) a concept may have
meaning by virtue of what is implied by its being true of something. A concept
may have some meaning and also a name. A similar view is expressed by Bolton
(1977) to whom a concept is an expression through an agreed symbol of a
particular meaning and which can be given a name. Chou & Roth (1995) noted
that a concept is a way of grouping objects or events in terms of essential
similarities. According to Schaefer (1979) a concept has something to do with
an abstract structure of properties that is characteristic for a certain class
of objects, events or phenomena. For example, the concept “life”, “growth”,
“energy”, “health”, and the like. The concept “life”, for example, has
characteristics such as growth, reproduction, respiration, nutrition,
excretion, locomotion, and irritability. Each one of these characteristics is
further different in different groups of plants and animals. For example, there
are different modes of nutrition (autotrophic, parasitic, saprophytic,
insectivorous, etc.) in plants.

The question arises whether words such as concepts, issues, concerns, threats, problems, terms, and topics
that are used by many authors in environmental education literature have the
same meaning. An analysis of different statements shows that these words are
indeed used as synonyms. For example, biodiversity is a concept to Wals &
van Weelie (1997) but is an environmental issue to Plamer, Suggate &
Matthews (1996). For some, conservation of resources, carrying capacity, and
predator-prey interactions are concepts (Munson, 1994). For others
overpopulation, soil erosion, and desertification are environmental problems
(Mabogunje, 1995). While for some others ozone layer and its depletion is an
environmental issue (Boyes, Chambers & Stanisstreet, 1995). For Plamer,
Suggate & Matthews (1996) deforestation is an environmental issue. Brody
(1990-91) mentioned population growth as a topic and pollution as a concept.
Roth (1992) recognized the difference between terms, concepts and events to be
understood by environmentally literate citizens. Roth (1992), however, did not
provide a clear distinction between terms and concepts important for
environmental literacy. It can be assumed that there is a close link between
words such as problems, issues, etc. used by many people. A concept has a basic
idea, a name, and share some features due to the interrelationships between
concepts and different in some instances.

In most instances it is difficult to define a concept. Ausubel, Novak & Hanesian (1978) has defined
concepts as objects, events, situations, or properties that possess common
criterial attributes and are designated in any given culture by some accepted
sign or symbol or a name. For example, an owl, a sparrow and a duck bear
similarities, as they are all “birds”. They share one or more common
properties. It can be assumed that the term ”concept” refers to a mental
representation that determines how entities are related. It seems that words
are used to label concepts. According to Norris (1982) concepts are basic ideas
and are abstractions of concrete events. Concepts can also be seen as
generalizations about particulars such as cause-effect, duration, dimension,
attributes, and continua of phenomena or objects.

Schaefer (1979) used the
“Bur” model to explain a concept. According to the ”Bur”model, a concept
consists of three parts, namely, the logic core, a name and an associative
framework. The logic core of the concept with hairs and hooklets is the
invariant representative of a certain class of things or events. The name
serves both as a vehicle for communication between individuals and as a label
for effective memorization within the individual. The associative framework is
a tight network of further associations surrounding the logic core and
additional to the name. All three parts of a concept serve as attaching points
for certain life situations so that the concept can be remembered and applied
adequately. In this context, a concept is understood as having a logic core (an
internal structure), which is surrounded by an associative framework, to which
also the name (a word or symbol or label) of the concept belongs.

A concept may have personal meaning and a name (a word or symbol or the label) attached to it. In some
instances, specific language or words are used to express concepts. A concept
can be defined as a basic idea (central concept), with a name and have some
features in common but may be different in some instances. For example,
interrelationships in the ecosystem is the basic idea, and the key words are
food chain, food web, pyramid of numbers and biomass, producers, consumers
(herbivores, carnivores) and decomposers which shares some common features for
the transfer of energy.

Chacko (2000) identified ten concepts that are regarded as necessary for teachers to be environmentally
literate. The ten concepts are in line with the definitions, aims, objectives
and guiding principles of environmental education and the definition of
environmental literacy. The 10 concepts related to environmental literacy were
formulated from the definition of environmental literacy, the levels of
environmental literacy, the characteristics of an environmentally literate
person and an environmentally literate society and from the concepts outlined
by other researchers. Each of the ten concepts is a cluster of related sub
concepts representing aspects of environmental literacy. These ten concepts
were selected mainly from major environmental areas such as ecology and
interactions in the environment, participation in the identification and prevention
of environmental problems, decision-making on environmental issues and
environmental ethics. The ten concepts are biosphere, ecological perspective,
interrelationships in an ecosystem, environmental changes, basic human needs,
resources, maintaining environmental quality, the ability to make choices,
decision-making on environmental issues as well as environmental ethic.

These 10 concepts were selected mainly from major areas such as ecology and interactions in the
environment (concepts 1-6), participation in the identification and prevention
of environmental problems (concept 7 & 8), decision making on environmental
issues (concept 9), and environmental ethics (concept 10) which is important in
developing environmental literacy. In most of these concepts there is a close
link between knowledge, affect, skills and behaviour. Owing to the close
relationship between the concepts it was very difficult to isolate the concepts
as to which concept represents knowledge, affect, skills or behaviour. Researchers
such as Hungerford & Volk (1990) and Sia, Hungerford & Tomera (1985/86)
have indicated the interrelationship between concepts in environmental
education, environmental literacy and responsible environmental behaviour.
Therefore, concepts are grouped together as some features of concepts overlap
with the other. The ten central concepts and sub concepts related to
environmental literacy are indicated in 10 categories in Table 1. In each
category, the basic idea (central concept) is in bold and the sub concepts are
in italics.

Table 1:

The concepts related to environmental literacy

No Concepts

1 Basic understanding of the biosphere (air, water, and land) as the life
support systems on which all living organisms depend for habitability and
survival. Knowledge of natural and man made environment.

Knowledge of natural laws and principles of nature.

2.Understanding of an ecological perspective of nature and human beings:
ecological concepts and principles, concepts of ecosystems.
3 Awareness of human interactions with the environment and
interrelationships in an ecosystem.

Understanding of natural cycles and energy flow in the ecosystem.

Knowledge of food chain and food web.

4 Knowledge of environmental changes brought about by industrialisation,
urbanisation.

Awareness of population growth issues and its influence on resources,
population growth and control, and problems of human settlement.

Awareness of pollution and sewage disposal.

5 Understanding of the activities to meet basic human needs and wants and
how it affects health, the environment, and quality of life.

Knowledge of population-resource imbalances and taking action to correct
such imbalances.

Knowledge of the use of resources and minimise the use of substances
harmful to the environment.

6 Awareness of renewable and non- renewable resources.

Understanding the difference between actual and perceived risks from the

Destruction of the environment and exploitation of natural resources and
their conservation.

7 Knowledge of how to maintain environmental quality and quality of life.

Knowledge of how organizations, and groups of people contribute to
environmental changes.

8 An understanding about the ability to make choices.

Willingness to curtail individual privileges.

Awareness of actions that individuals can take to protect the environment
and public health. Personal commitment for the care and respect for the
environment.

9 Knowledge of decision making on environmental issues in scientific,
economic, legal, social, and political contexts. Awareness of the effect of
consumer and market forces, and reject short-term gains.
Knowledge of the relationships between high productivity, modern
technology, economic development and a healthy environment.

10 Knowledge of environmental ethics as a way of life. Respect for all
living things.

Knowledge of ethical issues involved in environmental protection and
management.

Management of environment and resources for sustainable development.

The concepts outlined in
Table 1, have a basic idea (indicated in bold), a name, and share some features
due to the interrelationship between concepts and are different in some instances.
A concept has a basic idea, a name (a word or symbol or label), and shares some
features and are different in some instances. Concept 1, for example, has the
basic idea that all living organisms are dependent on the biosphere, natural
and man made environment for their survival and share the habitat.  In concept 2, the basic idea is ecology with
the key words such as ecosystems, and related concepts and principles. The
basic idea in concept 3, for example, is the interrelationships in the
ecosystem. The key words with related features are natural cycles, energy flow,
human interactions and interrelationships including food web and food chain. In
concept 4, the basic idea is about environmental changes with the key word
population growth issues, which has many features in common such as pollution
and sewage disposal. The important idea in concept 5 includes the impact of
basic human needs on resources with key words population-resource imbalances.
In concept 6, the basic idea is awareness of resources and the key words used
are destruction, exploitation and conservation of resources.  There is a link between concepts, as can be
observed in concepts 1 to 6 as they are mainly concerned with ecology and
interactions in the environment. In concept 7, the basic idea is participation
and the key aspect is to maintain environmental quality which overlaps with
concept 8 (the willingness and a commitment to act). In concept 8, the basic
idea is the participation in the identification and prevention of environmental
problems. The basic idea in concept 9, is about decision making on
environmental issues. The key words are productivity, economic development,
technology, and politics. Lastly, in concept 10, the emphasis is on the
importance of an environmental ethic, an aspect important for sustainable
development and also important to all 10 concepts outlined in Table 1.

The concepts outlined in
Table 1, also possess aspects that could raise awareness, understanding,
knowledge, attitudes, values, ethics, and skills to participate in the
prevention of environmental problems and an urge to protect and improve the
quality of the environment for the present and future generations. For example,
awareness of human interactions with the environment and interrelationships in an
ecosystem (concept 3), awareness of renewable and non-renewable resources
(concept 6), awareness of population growth issues and its influence on
resources, population growth and control, and problems of human settlement
(concept 4), understanding of an ecological perspective of nature and human
beings (concept 2), knowledge of natural and man made environment (concept 1),
knowledge of the use of resources (concept 5), ability to make choices and
willingness to curtail individual privileges (concept 8), awareness of the
effect of consumer and market forces, and reject short term gains (concept 9),
environmental ethics as a way of life and respect for all living things
(concept 10), awareness of  actions that
individuals can take to protect the environment and public health (concept 8),
and willingness to maintain
environmental quality and quality of life (concept 7). These concepts,
therefore, are in line with the definitions, aims, objectives and guiding
principles of environmental education, the definition of environmental
literacy, and responsible environmental behaviour. These concepts were selected
mainly from three major areas, namely the environment, environmental problems
and prevention of environmental problems, which are important in developing environmental
literacy. Chacko (2000) and Louber, Swanepoel & Chacko (2001) can be
consulted for more details on the identification and justification of the
concepts related to environmental literacy.

The question arises whether
words such as concepts, issues, concerns, threats, problems, terms, and topics
that are used by many authors in environmental education literature have the
same meaning. An analysis of different statements shows that these words are
indeed used as synonyms. For example, biodiversity is a concept to Wals &
van Weelie (1997) but is an environmental issue to Plamer, Suggate &
Matthews (1996). For some, conservation of resources, carrying capacity, and
predator-prey interactions are concepts (Munson, 1994). For others overpopulation,
soil erosion, and desertification are environmental problems (Mabogunje, 1995).
While for some others ozone layer and its depletion is an environmental issue
(Boyes, Chambers & Stanisstreet, 1995). For Plamer, Suggate & Matthews
(1996) deforestation is an environmental issue. Brody (1990-91) mentioned
population growth as a topic and pollution as a concept. Roth (1992) recognized
the difference between terms, concepts and events to be understood by
environmentally literate citizens. Roth (1992), however, did not provide a
clear distinction between terms and concepts important for environmental
literacy. It can be assumed that there is a close link between words such as
problems, issues, etc. used by many people. A concept has a basic idea, a name,
and share some features due to the interrelationships between concepts and
different in some instances.

A meaningful knowledge of
concepts in environmental education, which can be applied in real life
situations are essential to conserve, manage, develop and utilise natural
resources. Knowledge of concepts in environmental education will equip citizens
to make sound judgements and to take appropriate action that will contribute to
sustainable development of human society and the environment. This is necessary
to make sense of the world and to ensure the survival of the local, national
and global environments as well as influence citizens to interact with the
environment in an environmentally responsible manner. Knowledge of concepts can
also have an influence on the behaviour patterns of people towards the quality
of the environment and quality of life. An understanding of concepts and
interrelationships between concepts can provide increased support for
curriculum development at various levels of the education system, which can
lead to an improvement in the quality of the environment and quality of life.
Hence concepts are important to foster environmental literacy. Therefore, it
can be argued that an environmentally literate person should have a meaningful
knowledge of concepts.

Conclusion

There are different views
about concepts. A concept is understood as having a logic core, which is
surrounded by an associative framework, to which also the name of the concept
belongs. They have personal meaning and are difficult to define in most
instances.   A concept is defined as a
basic idea, with a name and has some features in common but may be different in
some instances. There are many concepts that are important in environmental
education. This is because concepts that is intelligible and rational and can
lead to a change in the meaning of experience.

Various studies have shown a
lack of understanding of environmental concepts by the general public.
Provision of quality education is expected to empower communities and promote
environmental literacy of all. The study of Life Sciences enables learners to understand
those concepts, which are essential to basic life processes and the
interrelationship and inter-dependence of components of the living and the
physical world. This understanding will ensure continued development, and the
improved quality of life and life support systems in the biosphere. It also
allows learners to apply knowledge and skills in a way that will lead to
sustainable management of resources and life support systems. The
implementation of the National Curriculum Statement in all Grades can promote
environmental literacy of the Biology learners. Seemingly, environmental
literacy will have the potential to achieve sustainable future for all so that
the present and future generations can share the physical resources of the
environment.

References

Ausubel, D.P; Novak, J.D & Hanesian, H. 1978. Educational Psychology: A
cognitive view. London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Bolton, N. 1977. Concept formation. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Boyes, E; Chambers, W & Stanisstreet, M. 1995. Trainee primary
teachers’ ideas about the ozone layer. Environmental Education Research, 1(2),
133-145.

Brody, M.J. 1990-91. Understanding of pollution among 4th, 8th and 11th
grade students. Journal of Environmental Education, 22(2), 24-33.

Cambridge International Dictionary of English.1995. Cambridge:Cambridge
University Press.

Chacko, C.C.  2000. The nature and
measurement of environmental literacy for                   sustainability. Unpublished
D.Ed thesis. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Chou, J & Roth, R.E. 1995. Exploring the underlying concepts in
environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education, 26(2), 36-43.

Department of Education. 1997. Policy Document: Senior Phase. Pretoria:
Government Printer.

Department of Education 2002. National Curriculum Statement Grades 10-12
(Schools): Biology (Life Sciences) (Draft). Pretoria: Government Printer.

Hill, T.E. 1971. The concept of meaning. New York: Humanities Press.

Loubser, C.P; Swanepoel, C.H & Chacko, C.P.C. 2001. Concept formulation
for environmental literacy. South African Journal of Education, 21(4), 317-323.

Mabogunje, A.L. 1995. The environmental challenges in sub-Saharan
Africa.
Environment, 37(4), 4-9, 31-35.

Munson, B.H. 1994. Ecological misconceptions. Journal of Environmental   Education, 25(4), 30-34.

Norris, C, M. 1982. Concept clarification: An overview. In Norris, C, M.
(Ed.). Concept clarification in nursing. London: Aspen.

Palmer, J.A; Suggate, J & Matthews, J. 1996. Environmental cognition:
early ideas and misconceptions at the ages of four and six. Environmental
Education Research, 2(3), 301-329.

Both, C.E. 1992. Environmental Literacy: Its roots, evolution and
directions in the 1990s. Columbus: The Ohio State University.

Schaefer, G. 1979. Concept formation in Biology: The concept “growth’.
European Journal of Science Education, 1(1), 87-101.

Wals, A.E.J & van Weelie, D. 1997. Environmental education and the
learning of ill-defined concepts: The case of biodiversity. Southern African
Journal of Environmental Education, 17, 4-11.

Behind the scenes: A missing link between policy and practice on gender
discrimination in a South African Institution of Higher learning.

Subject(s):

Higher Learning; Gender discrimination; Policy & Practice

Source:

Unpublished MEd Case Study, May 2002, Rhodes University
Congress Sub Theme:

Challenges facing education in the 21st century: Gender and its dynamics in
the education field

Author:

Mabovula  Nonceba Nolundi

Abstract: This paper
attempts to reveal from a phenomenological point of view what happens behind
the scenes on the perceptions and experiences of discrimination encountered by
a woman manager in an institution of higher learning where she works. The
researcher, who sought information about her feelings, perceptions and
experiences of discrimination, interviewed the subject, a director at the
University, who revealed that, although she headed an important unit of her
institution, male administrators of the same rank would by-pass her and consult
junior male officers in relation to matters concerning her portfolio. The
subject does not receive support from management, is seen as a weak manager,
does not have access to information, and experiences communication problems.
Also, she is made to perform duties outside her scope of work, her office is
under-resourced, understaffed, and lack of budget is a major setback for her.
The results of the study confirmed that gender discrimination is a pervasive
problem in South African institutions of higher learning despite some measures
to curb it. Women in such institutions are in a life-world in which, apart from
the general experiences shared with their male counterparts, are also exposed to
many other forms of discrimination. Some of these are subtle, and result from
years of socialization into perceived gender role expectations. Discrimination
against women happens in spite of the ideals expressed in the Employment Equity
Act 55 of 1998, a bold call for redress and equity on all grounds. But an Act
does not necessarily reflect reality, and the question remains: How can the
worthy ideals of the Act be translated into real action? There is evidence of a
change in the collective mindset, but as has been shown, the roots of
discrimination lie deep, the change process is slow and is likely to be
painful.

Introduction

This paper adopted Giorgi’s
(1999:77) phenomenological method to describe the perceptions and experiences
of a female leader participant to gain an in-depth understanding of
discrimination in an institution of higher learning. Since I was particularly
interested in engaging with a female leader’s perceptions and lived experience,
a phenomenological approach seemed to be an appropriate one to adopt. I
employed an approach that would encourage me to distance myself from what may
be an emotional issue, and to “allow a phenomenon to speak for itself” (Van der
Mescht 1996:44). Phenomenology does offer ways of understanding not offered by
other research methodologies. It enables the researcher to enter the lived
world of the researched, and understand events and perceptions from a fresh point
of view. The benefits of a phenomenological approach are well elaborated by
Giorgi (1999:77): -

Everything that is spoken
about is spoken about in terms of how objects or events appear to the
consciousness of the beholder, which is the literal definition of “phenomenon”
for phenomenology. It is a philosophy that is based upon intuition, which is a
technical term meaning that it is based on how objects present themselves to
consciousness (so “how” and “what” are both fully considered) and it proceeds
descriptively.

What I seek to establish in
this paper is to reveal the female feelings and experiences regarding
discrimination using an interpretive approach. I want to show how this woman
manager actually feels, what she endures, and how she actually triumphs. In
order to achieve my goals, a phenomenological research approach was appropriate
to help make deeper sense of a multiple and varied concrete experiences.

Gender discrimination in institutions of higher learning

Gender discrimination within
organizational contexts refers to women’s lack of institutional and
decision-making power. According to Walters (1991:48) gender subordination
included various forms of sexual harassment, lack of participation by women on
decision-making structures, ongoing silencing of women’s ideas and sometimes,
subtle forms of behaviour. Walters goes on to highlight other forms that range
from the ‘stealing’ of women’s ideas, to the trivialising of women’s issues, to
denial of women’s experiences as relevant. Others include institutional
practices that reinforce females as the power centers. Walters gives an example
of one woman manager who related what happened to her during one of their
meetings at her work like this:-

I felt invinsible. When I asked a question it wasn’t answered, when a man asked
the same question, it was answered (Walters 1991:47)

Such forms of subordination can make it possible for women to feel totally
powerless.

As recently as 1996 an
interesting exposition of university management by Leonard (1996 cited in Gold
1996) helped to account for the absence of women from senior administrative
positions.  Leonard describes the required
style of management in such institutions as technical, meaning that the central
concerns are national competitiveness, universities as enterprises, quality and
effectiveness.  Anyone associated with
tertiary education today would be familiar with the global push towards
national and international quality control and accountability. According to
Leonard the type of leadership most suited to these institutions is
rational/technicist, where the leader drags the reluctant academic forward and
where line management is supreme. In this approach to management students are
positioned as clients to be serviced and accountability is very important. It
is therefore assumed that because men appear to know how to do things properly
as if by instinct and women often have to struggle to find the correct answers
only men would be capable of managing such institutions. Women who are in
leadership positions are consequently viewed as followers, carrying out
decisions and following the initiatives of others (men), whereas men are
leaders who take the decisions and show the initiative Greyvenstein (1996).

A study by Tothill (1998: 1)
described women academics in South Africa, as elsewhere, as over-represented at
the lower levels of the academic hierarchy and under-represented at the higher.
For example, during 1997 the Center for Science Development’s (CSD’s)
Women-in-Research project conducted a survey on the position of women in Higher
Education Universities in South Africa. The data confirmed that senior
positions in academia were largely filled by males (only 2.1% of deans, 8% of
professors, 13.9% of associate professors 24.8% of senior lecturers were women
(Lund 1998: 10-16 in Greyvenstein 2000).

Looking abroad according to
Isaacs (1995: 2), women make up 10% of both assistant and associate CS professors
but only 4% of the full professors, a rank that generally takes about 10 years
to achieve (Gries and Marsh 1992 cited in Isaacs 1995: 2).  Enomoto (2000) mentions that for varying
reasons, men dominated the field with more members of white males in leadership
positions than women. Kanter (1977) in Enomoto (2000:377) states, “women
populate organizations, but they practically never run them”. The higher up the
organization one goes, the fewer women one finds.  Data such as these are easy to find, and one
could provide endless lists to make the point.

Barriers to women’s advancement in the management hierarchies

In South Africa today it is
appreciated that women are now making their mark in leadership and management
in institutions of higher learning and still fulfilling their traditional roles
of wives. But, despite increased representation of women in management and
leadership positions, studies of women by researchers like (King 1981,
Shakeshaft 1987, van der Westhuizen 1991:1994) in educational management posts
have revealed that women are in a life-world in which, apart from the general
experiences shared with their male counterparts, they are also exposed to many
specific experiences. For example they are often pushed to one side in unimportant
peripheral portfolios in the organizational structure and it is constantly
drummed into their heads that their presence in the top management team is
actually a special concession (Greyvenstein & van der Westhuizen 1992).
What complicates matters further is that women in educational management posts
are seen as representatives of the opposite sex and that they are not  judged according to their actual abilities as
individuals. A case study, which confirms this gender discourse, was conducted
in 2003 by myself in one institution of higher learning and the findings are as
follows:-.

The essence of her experience as a leader is a sense of conflict between
her frustration and anger about the way she is treated in the institution but,
feels there is nothing she can do to change that.

She sees her position as a
Director as one of the powerful positions in the institution but although the
position is high, she does not receive the support she needs. She perceives
herself as a good manager but at the same time feels that people see her as a
weak manager. She then believes she is not completely responsible for her
weaknesses and she links this perception to various aspects including her
gender status. Other aspects include her feeling that her day-to-day running of
the office is not a pleasant experience because she has to endure the
frustration of not having access to information when something is to be done.
She therefore feels she is being kept in the dark and thus deprived of her
rights and privileges. Clearly she experiences this to be a communication
problem. She feels that University stakeholders are not taking her role
seriously. What makes the situation so painful is the fact that senior
management is part of that ignorance: “I regret to say that … here in this
institution I don’t think it is well understood by senior management, the
individuals themselves are not educated in what role this office actually
plays”. She believes what she is doing –planning, paper work, and so on – is
largely “invisible” to the rest of the organisation.

The subject feels that her
staff members are also disadvantaged because her office is not recognised. What
is more painful is the fact that certain staff members (including herself) are
made to perform duties outside their scope of work, and are being misused by
people in the institution. “You know, take an event such as graduation, the
young man who is employed here, he turns into a driver, messenger when such
functions start”. She believes that people are not quite certain about her role
in management and she is very unhappy about that: “The tendency, people see it
as mhh… people who do the little things such as making sure that the room is
clean, putting flowers here and there, etc”. Sometimes she finds herself
operating multiple roles outside her scope of work and that makes her very
unhappy because her position is lowered to the status of supervisory staff

She does not get cooperation
from those other sections, which are not directly under her jurisdiction.
Although she is part of management she is not even involved in policy
formulation.  As a Director she believes
she is being side-lined when it comes to decision-making, and policy
formulation by management: “Even as I am talking to you, only now is the University
formulating its policies, and only now these policies be discussed at
management level”. Moreover her office is under-resourced: “The office itself
doesn’t have resources, the resources that we need. Our computers are not up to
date with internet. That makes my work very difficult”.

The lack of a budget is a
major setback for her. Her office is not even allocated its own budget. In this
instance she feels hopeless and defeated.
This adds to her frustration, although she is trying to cope in that
kind of situation. She also feels that if she were the kind of woman who
socialised with men, she would be recognised but because of her personal values
and upbringing she could not do that. Governed by her values she is unable to
go to common places where people socialise so as to be in a good position to
get first-hand information. Also because she does not mix with men, drink with
them, or enjoy their company she is not given due respect and this deprives her
of recognition.  “I don’t go out to the
common places where people go to socialise, where one could go to get everyday
information” she says.

What makes her job so
difficult is the fact that although it is known that her department is  understaffed, nothing has been done to solve
that problem. Instead, the work, which was supposed to be done by those who
have left, has been re-allocated to the remaining staff members and she
complains, “We used to be eight. Four of those people have left, we are only
four, and they left randomly”. She feels that they are overloaded and as a
result she is worried of being seen as less functioning Although her office
goes beyond its scope of work and some days they work over time, they never
complain; “I feel that it won’t help to complain, what will help is to do”.
Although she and her staff are working tirelessly and sometimes work overtime
there are no incentives to encourage them. “Again to use day before yesterday’s
example, we left at ten in the night. We were not paid overtime, we have never
asked for overtime”. She is also of the opinion that strong leadership is
associated with men because, according to her, men manage successfully by
forcing matters and bullying. She strongly believes that men get things done
successfully because of their aggressive behaviour and because they treat each
other on a  “man-to-man basis” which was
not possible with women; “Sometimes I think if I were a man may be eh… the man
will bully them, you know eh… or the man they’ll do on a man to man basis”. The
respondent strongly feels that women themselves look at management as a male
domain and by so doing undermine themselves” she then quotes. “We have a
tendency to think that it’s being a man’s world.

Employment Equity Act

The Employment Equity Act
(1998), aims to correct the demographic imbalance in the nation’s workforce by
compelling employers to remove barriers to advancement of ‘Blacks’ ‘Coloureds’
‘Indians’, women and the disabled, and actively to advance them in all
categories of employment though ‘affirmative action’.  It begins by placing an obligation on all
employers to promote equal opportunity in the workplace by eliminating unfair
discrimination in any employment policy or practice. The Act also expressly
excludes harassment of an employee on any of the listed grounds. But an Act
does not necessarily reflect reality, and the questions remains: How can the
worthy ideals of the Act be translated into real action?  There is evidence of a change in the
collective mindset, but, as has been shown, the roots of discrimination lie
deep.  The change process is slow, and is
likely to be painful.  But if the ideals
conceptualised in the Employment Equity Act are to be realised, it is a process
worth working towards.

The effects of gender
discrimination are more complex and subtle than are evident in statistical
evidence of women’s progress in the institutions of higher learning: rather, it
is a mindset into which we have been socialised.  Mwingi (2000: 3) makes the point forcefully:

Equity is more than just
numbers. In the case of school leadership, equity means more than additional female school
principals. According to Wamahiu (1996) equity is the conscious endeavour to break away from the
pedagogy of difference that is the order inherent in deeply seated patriarchal
societies towards a pedagogy that includes a different ideology; one that embraces and is
responsive to the views, vision and aspirations of the minority group.

In the case of women in
leadership positions in higher institutions, equity would entail pedagogy of
empowerment where the status and gender roles of women are recognized on
precepts other than biological differences and religious traditions. This means
that gender equity should be translated beyond the mere numerical increase of
women, beyond merely window dressing the issue. Again, it would be a mistake to
assume that during this democratic period in S.A trait thinking is dead. As
Blackmore (cited in Ngcobo 1996) reminds us:

People in positions of
power-such as selection committees who appoint teachers to          promotions posts-have continued to
think in terms of the “great man” theory (trait) to justify                       the exclusion of women
from leadership positions on the basis that most women do not                       possess ‘leadership
qualities’ such as competitiveness, aggressiveness, rationality,                      forcefulness and
independence (Ngcobo 1996: 10).

Such a view comes from a belief that the “tall and the big, the dominant,
the aggressive, the masculine, and the visible are more likely to be chosen as
leaders” (Fiedler 1967: 10).

What is interesting here is
that it is often semantics, which confuse the issue; stereotyped thinking leads
to the kinds of clichés that can conceal the truth. The contradiction suggests
that one cannot be a woman leader and still be successful.

Summary of the findings

This subject is a visionary,
but at the same time feels trapped and dysfunctional in her management role.
The essence of her experience is that she feels trapped and powerless. Her work
is misunderstood and devalued, but she is powerless to change that. The
testimony that she reveals in this study is evidence that women suffer one or
other forms of discrimination in their places of work. We don’t have to venture
too far into the statistics to prove such evidence. The fact is, for whatever
reasons, fewer women than men are recruited, retained and promoted by higher
institutions. However, when women are hired in management or leadership
positions, they tend to start at lower positions and/or earn lower starting
rates than men do.

She is an interesting
mixture of success and failure trapped in an unstable, hierarchical
organisation and her own stereotyped thinking, while on the other hand she
views leadership as a man’s field. She is a typical victim of cultural and
societal discourse: she cannot divorce herself from the beliefs of male
supremacy. She sees men as aggressors and bullies but also hopes she can adopt
their aggressive behaviour so as to succeed. Her leadership is characterised by
conflicting ideas and interests, and a crippling sense of failure. She knows,
management is not taking her seriously as they themselves do not take her role
seriously. Her feelings of being seen as a weak leader also confirm the
patriarchal belief that women are unfit to manage large organisations. This
feeling has been explained by researchers like Greyvenstein (1996) who
expressed the patriarchal belief that:

women are weak, passive, emotional, dependent, fearful, unsure of
themselves, while men are strong, aggressive, independent, fearless,
self-assured and rational.

On the basis of these
findings on gender discrimination it is evident that women are disadvantaged in
the job situation where they ‘compete’ with men. Their disadvantage is
unfortunately based on their sex. Also, the effects of gender and consequences
of stereotyping are complex and far reaching as people are programmed and
socialised by social structures they grew up in. Perhaps she has reached the
point of thinking that nothing is going to change and therefore she must stop
trying to change cultural roots that go back to the early days of mankind. The
result obtained from this study, together with literature that has been
reviewed show that gender discrimination is still a pervasive problem despite
some measures to curb it.

Importance of the study

This study shows that a
major intervention in institutions of higher learning is of paramount
importance. Its value could best be explained by answering the following
question: ‘What might these interventions include in the context of
institutions of higher learning to help other women especially those in
management to succeed and escape from their stereotyped feelings and thinking?

The changes that are taking
place both nationally and internationally can no longer be disregarded.  Institutions can no longer afford to
disregard and evade consequences brought about by change. The key to success
for women, especially those in management, lies in recognising the existence of
these feelings and reactions, in anticipating them, and in planning effective
ways of coping with them. Such intervention strategies will concern the
creation of an environment conducive to their well -being and advancement. I
shall itemise only five actions that institutions should bear in mind and
pursue.

Challenges facing education institutions

It is by actions, behaviour
and attitudes of staff that an organisational culture can be developed, thereby
helping management structures to bring about these sorts of changes in their
institutions.

Retraining of institutional
personnel in gender-sensitivity is essential and institutions must develop
on-going plans to solve this problem.

Education organisations
should play a vital role in identifying and conveying to the communities they
serve the major issues of the time, for example a capacity building strategy
must be developed for those charged with the responsibility for planning.

It is not good enough for an
organisation to assume that transformation happens in the ordinary course of
events and that no institutional effort is required. Management must devise
seminars, workshops, programmes and research that inform all staff of the
central issues at stake.

Many women appointed to
leadership positions are leaving or about to leave because they feel
marginalized and discomforted by having to work among people who do not
understand the issues and a system, which militates against their inclusion in
its decision-making structures.

Women must decide if success
in leadership and management is what they really want and desire. If the answer
is ‘yes’, they must plan for it, confront the problems and voice their feelings
and opinions. They also must work and support each other, be strong enough and
be less vulnerable to criticism.

Limitation of the study & Recommendations

Being a single case study
this research is naturally vulnerable to the usual criticisms and objections
leveled at small-scale qualitative studies. “How valid are these findings?” is
a question every researcher has to face at some stage, and the question
deserves an answer.  Of the studies I
have read which are similar to mine, the work of Michael (2000) is perhaps the
best source for me to draw on.  Her study
was also a phenomenological case study of a single leader. However, it does
raise the thorny issue of the validity of this research. Many qualitative
researchers have grappled with this issue.
Clearly there is a great need for further investigation of this
important issue, especially at a time when the country is undergoing
transformation. The country can benefit from a greater range of studies
examining the way women lead, and the barriers that confront them.

Concluding Remarks

I believe that it is indeed
true that the effects of gender and the consequences of stereotyping are more
complex and far- reaching than one may see in mere names and numbers.  Generally people have been so programmed and
socialised by social structures, that they easily relegate women into roles of
subservience and even social confinement, the result of which is that women’s
contribution to and membership of public leadership is not valued at all. Even
though they now hold the same title and the same position as their male
counterparts they are rarely viewed as equals by their male colleagues and by
the communities at large.

But, it is possible that we
are seeing the beginning of the end of this systematic and institutionalised
inequality and oppression of women. As research has shown in various studies,
and as is reflected in reality, women are making their mark in more ways than
one.  Perhaps the time has come when
societies will no longer have to succumb and accept the position and status of
women as a universal phenomenon and as a reality that existed for decades. This
widespread gender stereotyping has, ironically, provided obstacles to the full
development of both men and women. But, there is evidence of a change in the
collective mindset as has been shown, the roots of discrimination lie deep, the
change process is slow and is likely to be painful.

REFERENCES

Giorgi, A. (1999) A phenomenological perspective on some phenomenological
results on learning. Journal of phenomenological psychology 30 (2): 68-88.

Enomoto, E.K. (2000) Probing Educational Management as Gendered: An
Examination through Model and Metaphor. Teachers College Record Volume 102.
Columbia University. February 2000: 375-397.

Fiedler, F. E. (1967) A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: Mc
Graw-Hill.

Isaacs, E. (1995) Gender Discrimination in the workplace: A literature
review. Communications of the ACM, Special issue on Women in Computing 38 (1):
58-59.
Mwingi, M.P. (2000) Female school principals’ perceptions of leadership in
a male dominated education environment. Unpublished M Ed Thesis. Rhodes
University, Grahamstown.

Ngcobo, T.M. (1996) An investigation into the teacher’s perceptions of
female secondary school principals in KwaZulu-Natal. Unpublished M Ed Thesis.
Rhodes University, Grahamstown.

Tothill, A. (1998) Women-in-Research: Women Academics in the Humanities and
Social Sciences at South African Universities. Women’s Studies 10 (1): 1-26.

Walters, S. (1991). Her Words On His Lips: Gender And Popular Education in
South Africa. Women’s Studies 3 (2).

Van der Mescht, H. (1996). A phenomenological investigation into education
leaders’ perceptions of themselves, their followers, and their organisational
contexts. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Rhodes University, Grahamstown.

 

COMPUTER-ASSISTED LEARNING: HUMAN AND MATERIAL RESOURCES IN SOUTH AFRICAN
SCHOOLS

PRESENTED AT THE SOUTH AFRICAN SOCIETY FOR EDUCATION ANNUAL CONFERENCE AT
ORION SAFARI LODGE, RUSTENBURG 25TH – 28 SEPTEMBER 2003

DR F M RAMUSI

ABSTRACT

The objective of this paper
is to reflect on how computer-assisted learning can be used to meet the
challenges faced by Southern African schools. Southern African countries are
confronted by challenging issues that urgently need intervention strategies.
This paper is based on the notion that countries of the Southern African region
share numerous social, political and economic interests, not only because of
demographic links but due to economic and historical relationships. Inherently,
therefore, the challenging issues in education are relatively common in nature.
The paper will conclude that computer-assisted learning should be broadly
conceived of as the full repertoire of activities involved in the continuing
and lifelong education of learners and serving educators.

1.         INTRODUCTION

As we move further into the
new millennium, many countries are becoming increasingly conscious of the
mounting internal and external pressure created by the need for global
competitiveness and the educational demands that go together with it.  These demands are for more effective and
efficient systems of education and training and development to meet the
overlapping needs of governments, industry and commerce and of
individuals.  Invariably, human and
material resources are limited while learner profiles are becoming more and
more complex and the quality requirements increasingly exacting.  Against this background, a complete rethink
as to how and when learning takes place is required if we are to meet the
current social and economic challenges confronting Southern African
countries.  The African continent as a
whole is facing one of the most daunting developmental challenges on the globe.

The purpose of this paper is
to examine how Computer-Assisted Learning can be used as an intervention
strategy in alleviating educational deficiencies and aiding sustainable
development.  It examines the extent to
which developing countries can become innovative in their striving to enhance
the performance and potential of their human and material resources.  The numerous problems in Southern African
education systems have culminated in considerable pressure from various sources
to find and apply “hi-tech” as a possible solution to eliminate these
deficiencies.

2.         CHALLENGING ISSUES IN
EDUCATION CONFRONTING SOUTHERN AFRICAN COUNTRIES

The first section of this
paper will provide a general overview of the education system within the
context of the Southern African region.
The education system in Southern African countries has been copiously
documented by several authors, educationists and historians.  This section of the paper, therefore, simply
seeks to analyse some of the key challenges in education.

It should be pointed out
that since this paper is not primarily concerned with a full discussion of the
various systems of education in Southern African, the presentation will be more
descriptive rather than analytical.
Although essentially descriptive, the discussion will serve as framework
for and facilitate an understanding of the education situation within the
region and why there is a dire need for radical change.

In view of the fact that
education is a dependent variable within other socio-political systems, it is
critical to examine some of these systems in terms of their effect on
educational provisioning and policy change.  However, a thorough and in-depth analysis of
the Southern economic political and social structures and processes would be
beyond the scope and time constraints of this paper.  Consequently, this paper will only confine
itself to a consideration of those issues and processes which have particular
salience and pertinence for this conference.
A word of caution needs to be mentioned here: educational analysis in
complex pluralistic societies such as those in Southern Africa, it may be
argued, should not rest on fragmented or linear models of reasoning or
supposition.

Hawes (1989:18) argues that:
“if there is one master lesson that we have learnt from experience, it is that
when you have big problems and little time and money to solve them, something
has to be done first and done properly.”

Perhaps it is historically
significant to realise that in Southern African countries the educational
systems were neither done “first” in the sense of having a clear priority, nor
“properly” in terms of delivery, access, relevance and quality.  One of the myriad educational problems
confronting Southern African countries today seems to be the critical shortage
of professionally qualified educators.
The largest and most important of these is most probably that of inadequately
trained educators in Mathematical Science and Technology.  Poor competence in these fields of study is
thus a widespread phenomenon requiring special attention.

Ironically, it has taken a
long period for these countries to recognise that within the schooling system
the natural science subjects constitute the foundation upon which everything
else rests; or that education is a human right which is fundamental to the
future development of learners’ environments.

- The challenges facing
education in Southern African region are multi-dimensional problems which will
continue to call for imaginative and bold plans.  In this respect, one of the most acute
problems facing educational planners and administrators, and one which
continues to baffle policy-makers in Southern African education, is the
critical shortage of professionally qualified educators.  Heimer (1981:10) appropriately argues that
you cannot have effective schooling and consistently strong learner achievement
without effective instruction, and that means effective, competent
educators.  The present crisis in
education in Southern African countries centres on the magnitude of the problem
of educating and re-educating educators to fulfil expected goals and felt
needs.  There is already an acute
shortage of adequately qualified educators and the problem is increasing at an
alarmingly high rate.

- Another major challenge emanates from the growing political, social
economic aspirations of young people.

- In the classroom situation
itself, the biggest challenge appears to be language competence.  The medium of instruction in most Southern
African states seem to be English.
Hartshorne (1981:5) and Adler (1998:36) argue that language, like
mathematical symbols, is a vehicle of communication and instruction in these
countries.  The role of language,
especially in black education in Southern Africa, has long been regarded as a
matter of critical importance, and this, not surprisingly, gives rise to a
number of very serious learning problems.
Invariably learners develop the tendency to learn in a parrot-like
fashion without understanding.  This
results in an inability to apply the knowledge in practical situations.  The second most serious problem is that
learners are unable to follow instructions in the new medium and this
culminates in high failure and drop-out rates.
The problems are perpetuated because learners enter tertiary
institutions still suffering from this disadvantage.  Those who follow teaching as a profession
eventually have to reach through the medium of the new language but are
inadequately prepared to do so and pass on to their pupils the inadequacies of
their own poor performance.  Van Royen
(1990:2) argues that poor performance learners in Mathematics appear to be
significantly affected by their limited vocabulary and comprehension within
this new medium of instruction.

- Wolfson (1986:11) states
that the medium of instruction has long been a thorny and emotive issue in
Southern African education.  Apart from
causing bitter resentment and eventual deficiencies, the education policies
produced a legacy of second-language speakers who were unfamiliar with Western cultural
values and who possessed an inadequate command of English (Glennie, 1988:5).
This left them floundering, with little prospect of employment, and less of
coping with high academic education.
This does not imply that an inadequate of English for commerce or higher
education is exclusively a Southern African problem, as Bowles (1988 pp. 34-45)
points out: problems of failure among people in developing countries are also
“partly linguistic, partly instructional and partly cultural.”  In South Africa, one might add “and partly
ideological.”  English has, thus, clearly
assumed prominence in the Southern African education systems.

3.         CHALLENGES FACING MATERIAL
RESOURCES

A significant number of
researchers established that most schools in the Southern African region suffer
from a severe lack of material resources both human and material (Gordon, 1997,
Stern, 1994, Delins, 1996).

Taylor, Vinjevold and Reeves
(1999:65) are of the opinion that, in the South African context, the legacy of
fragmented political and political policies have born bitter and frustrating
fruit.  The backlog especially in black
schools is quite substantial and frightening.
The difficulties experienced by conscientious educators in black
education exceed the threshold of many of the harshest conditions experienced
elsewhere.  The lack of resources, the
mismanagement of such resources where they have been available and, in
particular, the unfair distribution of resources within the education context
are currently being addressed under the new dispensation in the post-apartheid
South Africa.  The issue of the
provisioning of resources is a political one, according to Davidoff &
Lazarus (1997:115).  It is an issue of
power.  But the reason we are deeply
touched by issues relating to resources is that they relate to educational
interest.  Schools are primarily
dependent on governments for the provision of finances and other material
resources.  The way in which the
education budget is devised has a major impact on all educational systems in
the country.  This is an issue which
should be taken seriously – and not merely be left to the politicians and
government officials.  Employee trade
unions and other collective bodies play an important role in keeping a watchful
eye on how budgets are developed, and should intervene if priorities are not
identified in an acceptable manner.

A recent comprehensive
documentation of the inadequacies of many schools throughout regions in the
Southern Africa provided by the Education Atlas of South Africa established
that almost 47% of all the schools in South Africa do not have electricity and telephones
(The Education Foundation, 2000:57).  In
addition, the school Register of Needs Survey (Department of Education, 1997),
observed that in Limpopo alone there is a shortage of 13 670 classrooms, 41% of
the existing buildings are in weak and very weak conditions, there was only one
laboratory for every 2 291 learners, and nearly half of the province’s 4 244
schools have no water within walking distance.
This gloomy picture was also supported by Howie (2001) and Jansens
(2000), Dean of Education at the University of Pretoria, when he stated that
the picture is not any different in most rural areas of Southern Africa.  He reported that many schools make use of
water and sanitation that are unhygienic.
On the issue of libraries and laboratories, Jansens found that about 80%
of South African schools have no libraries and many schools experience severe
problems in obtaining sufficient learning materials.  In the Eastern Cape, infrastructure is
collapsing and a high percentage of educators, including 70% of the principals,
are underqualified.  (Vally, 1988:17).

4.         COMPUTER-BASED INSTRUCTION
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

In this section this paper
will consider alternative options concerning sustainable skills and human
capital initiatives using information technology.  This is also referred to as Computer-Based
Education (CBE).  In response to the
current challenges confronting educational issues in Southern Africa, it is perhaps
necessary to explore alternative options and consider the promise and potential
of educational technology.  Advancing
technology holds the promise of cost-effective mass customization of
education.  Investing in educational
technology, for example, will enable Southern African states to “leapfrog” in
finding creative solutions in education.
These solutions must be utilised effectively in the provision of
Computer-Based Education, if we assume that these states are serious about
tackling the educational problems.
Arguably the challenge of providing Computer-Based Education is one of
the most significant pedagogical challenges facing the Region.  In order to make positive in-roads in this
regard, empirical research into the effects of Computer-Based Education in the
learning of specific subjects like Mathematics and Languages should be
considered.  By and large Computer-Based
Education has the potential to invest in human capital and skills
sustainability.

5.         THE RATIONALE FOR USING
COMPUTER-BASED EDUCATION (CBE)

In order to address the
challenges confronting educational issues Computer-Based Education should form
an integral part of educational systems.
Changes brought about by scientific and technological advances
especially in developing countries compel those countries to review their
education strategies and educational programmes.  School-focused programmes in which experts
act as educators or facilitate tuition appear to be in vogue.  With a view to determing the trends in developments
of Computer-Based Education, it might be prudent to briefly refer to the
context of the terrain where such technology in education has made and must
make its contribution.  According to
Wells (1984:56), world-wide Computer-Based Education has been used to alleviate
deficiencies and problems in education.
Computer-Based Education possesses the potential to address the
educational challenges that confront developing countries worldwide.  The increasing usage of computers seems to be
assumed by most futurists to transform the conditions, practices, and content
of teaching and learning.  They assist in
preparing learners for working in a global, 21st century, technologically
driven world.

7.         TRANSFORMING EDUCATION
THROUGH TECHNOLOGY

Technology like
Computer-Based Education is perceived as a driver of school reform and
change.  This is evident from the
increase in the number of computers in schools over the last twenty years or
so.  In the United States of America, as
along ago as 1984, 350 000 computers were available in primary and secondary
schools, an average of about four to ten computers per school.  (Puth, 1988:127), and in the last five years
the number of computers in schools has roughly doubled each year.  Southern African states will have to put in
extra effort to understand precisely how computers and other technological
equipment can, and should, be used to address the various problems with their
unique environment.

One major implication of all
of these educational technologies is that schools and other institutions will
have to change their structure in order to provide for future education.  Meeting the educational challenges of the
current global environment means that schools should create a vision for the
impact of Computer-Based Education.  It
is abundantly clear that Computer-Based Educational developments of the
information era will have profound implications not only for primary and
secondary schools and tertiary education, but also for non-formal and
continuous education (Puth & Sidelsky, 1989:126).

7.         GAUTENG ONLINE BOOSTS
QUALITY LEARNING

During June 2000, the
Gauteng Provincial Government (GPG) launched Gauteng Online, a programme to
provide all public school learners in Gauteng with e-mail address and access to
the Internet.  The Province provided an
initial R500 million to kick-start the project and will enter into
public–private partnerships with key information technology (IT) companies to
raise the remaining R4 billion needed to complete and maintain the programme.  The programme is making a massive
contribution to bridging the digital divide and providing learners – regardless
of their socio-economic background.
Significantly, this programme ensures equitable access to the
information superhighway and the learning opportunities that this provides.

Gauteng Online not only
harnesses technology to the benefit of learners, educators and other
stakeholders, it also bolsters the Gauteng government’s efforts to make a Smart
Province.  This includes the development
of the ICT sector and a broader knowledge-based economy.  Guided by an e-learning framework, the
programme ensures that all computer hardware and software serves as a channel
to realise educational outcomes set by the Department of Education.

Learners and educators will
have access to the latest technology and training and, by having access to the
internet and e-mail, a wealth of information in terms of educational content
will be available for learners and educators.
The system will also enable learners to communicate with their peers
throughout the province.  For example, a
learner in Soweto can communicate with a learner in Sandton and share learning
experiences.  Educators will also be able
to access state-of-the-art training materials and share experiences and
knowledge with their counterparts around the world.  Training in the use of this technology had to
be undertaken to reinforce the educator’s skills and knowledge.  In all these contexts one can expect dramatic
changes in the methods of learning and teaching as they are today.  The following are some of the most important
implications of the information society for education and training of the
future:

-               increasing the
educational level of all learners;

-               upgrading the
productivity of professional educators;

-               improving learners’
language and mathematical skills;

-               decreasing the
shortage of qualified educators;

-               nurturing a culture
of communication and participation in schools;
and

-               ensuring equal access
to education.

8.      ENHANCING THE CAPACITY TO
ADAPT TO NEW TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES

Clearly, the challenges of
improved pedagogy and learning support will require systematic organisational
changes, and its success will be co-determined by the interplay between
information technology and sustainable skills development.  The emerging knowledge society is changing
the traditional methods of education delivery to a new role of knowledge
reconfiguration.  The space compression
of globalization allows communication technologies to transcend traditional
national boundaries.  Considerably higher
levels of massification in education can be expected, especially in developing
countries.  Scott (1997:6) argues that
the emerging transformation of education during this millennium should be based
on the following pivotal foundational attributes:

-               institutional
capacity;

-               adaptation;

-               acceleration;

-               technological changes

-               mass customization;

-               globalization;  and

-               information
technology for sustainable teaching and learner support.

 

If the future is likely to
remain murky in the face of rapid radical change, it seems appropriate that
educational systems in developing countries should recognise their capacity to
cope with change.  In my opinion
computer-based instruction is more meaningful than attempting to develop
strategies based on strategic visions that are likely to change significantly
before they are implemented.  One of the
great advantages of computer-based instruction is the fact that it may lead to
a reduction of the disparities in the quality and content of education.  High levels of educational content will be
assured to the extent that it will be possible to package curricula and other
learning materials in standardised formats such as computers.  The University of California provides Plato
services on 27 sites, which include the university itself, adult education
centres, and vocational training schools (California State University,
1987).  Much of the impetus to use
computer-based instruction in certain courses has emanated from individual
educators who possess extensive experience, and who tirelessly produce
quantities of excellent courseware (Bailey, 1987:9).  However, we should be aware that
computer-based instruction should not be considered a panacea for all our
educational ills within the region.

9.         RECOMMENDATIONS

-                     National
policies should be developed so that technology initiatives can be accommodated
and address issues most relevant to educators and build on those interested to
improve practice.

·                     Effective
computer-based instruction must be considered to enhance the demands of
education based on a distinct and coherent national policy on strategic
planning which includes priorities, targets budgets, time-scale and
implementation strategies.

·                     Involvement of
multiple stakeholders to create high quality content and software.

·                     Conduct
rigorous research and continuous evaluation.

·                     Technology should
form an integral part of the curricula and work in concert with other factors –
leadership, local instructional priorities and the demands of the classroom
practice.

·                     Coupled with
ongoing support for educators, technology should be designed to meet core
educational challenges for distance learning, and follow-up work in schools
during the process of implementation is absolutely essential for sustainability.

10.       CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it is evident
that computer-based instruction as a supplementary teaching aid possesses the
potential to narrow the knowledge gap in education and training.  This mode of learning has a positive influence
on the amount that can be learned and in the quality of learning – if the
material is developed in an educationally accountable way.  This mode of learning is more effective
especially for learning-disadvantaged environments.  Most certainly, computer-based instruction
can play a significant role in improving the basic skills of adult learners in
Mathematics.  Practical contextual
problems may be solved due to the well-developed technological infrastructure
already existing in some areas of Southern Africa.

Finally, although many of
the assertions mentioned in this paper are speculative, they are certainly
possible with the current status of globalization and technological
development.  The real challenge is our
ability to transform educational systems and structures so as to capitalise on
technological advancement for development.

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